Regulating Standalone Oil Palm Mills in Indonesia: A Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64137/31079423/IJEBMR-V2I2P120Keywords:
Palm Oil Governance, Standalone Oil Palm Mills, Indonesia, Independent Smallholders, Fresh Fruit Bunch Markets, Partnerships, Traceability, ISPO, Mill Licensing, Sustainable AgribusinessAbstract
Indonesia’s palm oil sector depends on the rapid movement of fresh fruit bunches from farms to mills, which makes milling capacity central to farmer welfare, industrial efficiency, and sustainability governance. Yet policy controversy has intensified around oil palm mills that operate without owning or directly controlling plantations. This article offers a qualitative literature review of how such mills should be regulated in Indonesia. Drawing on recent peer-reviewed studies, official regulations, certification issues, and statistics, the article argues that standalone mills are neither inherently harmful nor inherently desirable. Their effects depend on location, sourcing arrangements, and the institutional quality of supervision. On the positive side, these mills can widen market access for independent smallholders, reduce fruit-queue losses, stimulate local investment, and weaken localised monopsony. On the negative side, they can disrupt long-established plasma relationships, intensify opportunistic competition for oil palm fresh fruit bunches, weaken traceability, and create incentives for informal ramp-based procurement or legality gaps. The review finds that an outright ban would be too blunt and potentially exclusionary, while laissez-faire tolerance would be too risky for sustainability and the integrity of partnerships. The most appropriate policy is a conditional governance model that recognises standalone mills as lawful but subjects them to spatial feasibility tests, mandatory smallholder partnerships, transparent pricing rules, digital traceability, registered loading ramps, phased ISPO integration, and differentiated enforcement for remote and underserved districts. Such a model would better align farmer inclusion, industrial order, and sustainability in Indonesia’s palm oil ecosystem.
References
[1] Fitri Hariyanti, Almasdi Syahza, None Zulkarnain, and None Nofrizal, “Economic transformation based on Leading Commodities through sustainable development of the oil palm industry,” Heliyon, pp. e25674–e25674, Feb. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25674.
[2] IPOSS, “2026 Palm Oil Outlook,” Jakarta, 2026.
[3] L. Judijanto, “NAVIGATING UNCERTAINTY: PALM OIL SECTOR OUTLOOK FOR 2026 THROUGH THE LENS OF SMALLHOLDER WELFARE AND SUSTAINABILITY IMPERATIVES,” Revista de Geopolítica, vol. 17, no. 1, p. e1386, Jan. 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.56238/revgeov17n1-127.
[4] S. P. Pareira, “Achieving Indonesian Palm Oil Farm-to-Table Traceability through ISPO-RSPO Harmonization,” Mar. 01, 2023. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369898200_Achieving_Indonesian_Palm_Oil_Farm-to-Table_Traceability_through_ISPO-RSPO_Harmonization
[5] Andini Desita Ekaputri, David, R. Heilmayr, and K. M. Carlson, “Uneven participation of independent and contract smallholders in certified palm oil mill markets in Indonesia,” Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 6, no. 1, Aug. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02683-6.
[6] J. Witjaksono et al., “The assessment of fresh fruit bunches supply chain of palm oil independent smallholder farmers in southeast Sulawesi,” Uncertain Supply Chain Management, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 941–950, Jan. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.5267/j.uscm.2023.5.004.
[7] A. Ruswanto, A. Handono Ramelan, D. Praseptiangga, and I. Bagus Banyuro Partha, “Effects of Ripening Level and Processing Delay on the Characteristics of Oil Palm Fruit Bunches,” International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 389, Feb. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.10.1.10987.
[8] K Falgenti and E Hambali, “The analysis and design of independent smallholders FFB palm oil supply system to support traceability of CPO product derivatives,” IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1063, no. 1, pp. 012035–012035, Jul. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1063/1/012035.
[9] L. Judijanto, “Economic Costs of Non-Optimal Oil Palm Fresh Fruit Bunch Harvesting: A Review on Maturity-Driven Production and Quality Implications,” Shrine J. Res. Sci., vol. 3, no. 3, Mar. 2026, doi: 10.65070/SJRS.2026.826.
[10] A. Ruswanto, A. H. Ramelan, D. Praseptiangga, and I. B. B. Partha, “Palm oil yield potency on different level of ripening and storage time based on fruits percentage and fresh fruit bunches,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 443, p. 012005, Mar. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/443/1/012005.
[11] H. Purnomo et al., “Green consumer behaviour influences Indonesian palm oil sustainability,” International Forestry Review, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 449–472, Dec. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1505/146554823838028210.
[12] J. Grabs and R. D. Garrett, “Goal-Based Private Sustainability Governance and Its Paradoxes in the Indonesian Palm Oil Sector,” Mar. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-023-05377-1.
[13] Related Articles, “Agriculture Ministry warns palm oil mills buying below benchmark price,” idnfinancials.com, May 29, 2026. https://www.idnfinancials.com/news/64242/agriculture-ministry-warns-palm-oil-mills-buying-below-benchmark-price (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[14] Palmoilmagazine, “New ISPO Policy Signed by Prabowo: Broader Scope, Clearer Rules for Palm Oil Industry - Palmoilmagazine.com,” Palmoilmagazine.com, Apr. 13, 2025. https://www.palmoilmagazine.com/ispo/2025/04/13/new-ispo-policy-signed-by-prabowo-broader-scope-clearer-rules-for-palm-oil-industry/
[15] M. Eggen et al., “Smallholder participation in zero-deforestation supply chain initiatives in the Indonesian palm oil sector: Challenges, opportunities, and limitations,” Elementa, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2023.00099.
[16] C. Reich and O. Musshoff, “Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia,” Journal of environmental management, vol. 375, p. 124303, Feb. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303.
[17] O. David et al., “Building a Resilient and Sustainable Palm oil Value Chain in South Papua Province, Indonesia,” African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, vol. 26, no. 01, pp. 28552–28583, Jan. 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.148.26255.
[18] Anggi Prabawa Pasaribu, “Strengthening Indonesia’s sustainable palm oil policy: Addressing climate change and enhancing global market integration,” Journal of Sustainability, Society, and Eco-Welfare, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 64–84, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.61511/jssew.v3i1.2025.2278.
[19] V. V. Krishna and C. Kubitza, “Impact of oil palm expansion on the provision of private and community goods in rural Indonesia,” Ecological Economics, vol. 179, p. 106829, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106829.
[20] J. F. McCarthy, P. Gillespie, and Z. Zen, “Swimming Upstream: Local Indonesian Production Networks in ‘Globalized’ Palm Oil Production,” World Development, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 555–569, Mar. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.07.012.
[21] S. Raharja et al., “Institutional strengthening model of oil palm independent smallholder in Riau and Jambi Provinces, Indonesia,” Heliyon, vol. 6, no. 5, p. e03875, May 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03875.
[22] C. Brandi, “The Interaction of Private and Public Governance: The Case of Sustainability Standards for Palm Oil,” The European Journal of Development Research, Oct. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00306-8.
[23] J. P. Monzon et al., “Fostering a climate-smart intensification for oil palm,” Nature Sustainability, vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 595–601, Jul. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00700-y.
[24] D. J. Murphy, K. Goggin, and R. R. M. Paterson, “Oil palm in the 2020s and beyond: challenges and solutions,” CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, vol. 2, no. 1, Oct. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-021-00058-3.
[25] Y. Xin, L. Sun, and M. C. Hansen, “Oil palm reconciliation in Indonesia: Balancing rising demand and environmental conservation towards 2050,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 380, p. 135087, Dec. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135087.
[26] GAPKI, “GAPKI: No-Plantation Palm Mills Disrupts Partnerships,” GAPKI Publication Recent News. Accessed: Jun. 01, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://gapki.id/en/news/2024/07/17/gapki-no-plantation-palm-mills-disrupts-partnerships/
[27] Administrator, “POPSI: Don’t Force the Market to Absorb Seized Palm Oil, It Could Shake Sustainable Palm Credibility,” Infosawit.com, Jan. 19, 2026. https://www.en.infosawit.com/news/17130/popsi--don---t-force-the-market-to-absorb-seized-palm-oil--it-could-shake-sustainable-palm-credibility (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[28] Subagyo, “Apkasindo harapkan pemerintah beri dukungan pabrik sawit tanpa kebun,” Antara News, Apr. 24, 2026. https://www.antaranews.com/berita/5540475/apkasindo-harapkan-pemerintah-beri-dukungan-pabrik-sawit-tanpa-kebun (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[29] Redaksi Sawit Indonesia, “Tanggapi Mentan Amran, APKASINDO: Pabrik Sawit Tanpa Kebun Justru Bantu Petani Swadaya,” Kantor Berita Sawit, Mar. 14, 2026. https://sawitindonesia.com/tanggapi-mentan-amran-apkasindo-pabrik-sawit-tanpa-kebun-justru-bantu-petani-swadaya/#google_vignette (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[30] Haisawit and Haisawit, “Gapki Minta Regulasi Ketat bagi Pabrik Sawit Tanpa Kebun Agar Mitra Perusahaan dan Petani Tidak Dirugikan,” Haisawit.co.id, 2025. https://haisawit.co.id/news/detail/gapki-minta-regulasi-ketat-bagi-pabrik-sawit-tanpa-kebun-agar-mitra-perusahaan-dan-petani-tidak-dirugikan (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[31] admin, “Gapki Dorong Penataan Pabrik Sawit Tanpa Kebun untuk Lindungi Petani dan Mitra Perusahaan - Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI),” Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI), Sep. 15, 2025. https://gapki.id/news/2025/09/15/gapki-dorong-penataan-pabrik-sawit-tanpa-kebun-untuk-lindungi-petani-dan-mitra-perusahaan/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[32] Amran: Pabrik Sawit Tanpa Kebun Rusak Sistem Plasma Petani,” ekonomi, Mar. 12, 2026. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20260312200832-92-1337457/amran-pabrik-sawit-tanpa-kebun-rusak-sistem-plasma-petani (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[33] J. D. Watts et al., “Challenges faced by smallholders in achieving sustainable palm oil certification in Indonesia,” World Development, vol. 146, p. 105565, Oct. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105565.
[34] K. T. Sibhatu, L. Steinhübel, H. Siregar, M. Qaim, and M. Wollni, “Spatial heterogeneity in smallholder oil palm production,” Forest Policy and Economics, vol. 139, p. 102731, Jun. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2022.102731.
[35] S. Hutabarat, M. Slingerland, and L. Dries, “Explaining the ‘Certification Gap’ for Different Types of Oil Palm Smallholders in Riau Province, Indonesia,” The Journal of Environment & Development, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 253–281, Jun. 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496519854505.
[36] K. Anam, A. Fauzi, H. Hendrarini, and Maroeto, “Efforts to Empower Farmer Groups on Smallholder Oil Palm Plantations Facing the EUDR Anti-Deforestation Policy,” Asian Journal of Natural Sciences, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 209–220, Sep. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.55927/ajns.v4i3.50.
[37] M. Intan Pratiwi and H. Andora, “Authority of the Regional Government in Processing Oil Palm Plantation Licensing in Kampar Regency,” Journal of Law, Politic and Humanities, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 2478–2493, Oct. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.38035/jlph.v4i6.792.
[38] Jamaluddin, Faisal, E. Sari, and Jumadiah, “The Urgency of Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil Certification for Oil Palm Plantation Companies in the State’s Economic Growth,” Proceedings of Malikussaleh International Conference on Multidisciplinary Studies (MICoMS), vol. 3, p. 00070, Feb. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.29103/micoms.v3i.238.
[39] T. Hidayat and S. Fajri, “Analysis of Public Policies in Indonesia’s Palm Oil Industry to Support Sustainable Development,” ARISTO, vol. 14, no. 2, Oct. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.24269/ars.v14i2.12130.
[40] H. Sugiyono and I. Haryanto, “Plantation Regulation In The Palm Industry Sector In The Omnibus Law Of Employment Creation (Cipta Kerja),” Veteran Law Review, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 14, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.35586/velrev.v4i1.2750.
[41] Palmoilmagazine, “Revised FFB Trading Regulation Mandates New Criteria for Independent Oil Palm Smallholders - Palm Oil Magazine,” Palm Oil Magazine, Dec. 08, 2024. https://www.palmoilmagazine.com/hot-news/2024/12/08/revised-ffb-trading-regulation-mandates-new-criteria-for-independent-oil-palm-smallholders/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[42] G. Mulyasari, I. N. Djarot, N. A. Sasongko, and A. S. Putra, “Social-life cycle assessment of oil palm plantation smallholders in Bengkulu province, Indonesia,” Heliyon, vol. 9, no. 8, p. e19123, Aug. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19123.
[43] N. Azizah, C. T. Prakoso, and S. Saipul, “Implementation of the RSPO International Standard: Evaluation of Substantive Success and Systemic Constraints for Oil Palm Smallholders,” SIGn Journal of Social Science, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 423–442, Mar. 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.37276/sjss.v6i2.669.
[44] Hukumonline, “Hukumonline Pro - ISPO Certification: Compliance Deadlines Set for Plantation Companies, Palm-Based Bioenergy Enterprises and Palm-Oil Industries,” hukumonline.com, Apr. 2025. https://pro.hukumonline.com/a/lt6806fb9b30f4b/ispo-certification--compliance-deadlines-set-for-plantation-companies--palm-based-bioenergy-enterprises-and-palm-oil-industries (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[45] Alfitria Nefi Pratiwi, “Indonesia Mandates ISPO Certification for Downstream Palm Oil by 2027,” Tempo English, Apr. 12, 2026. https://en.tempo.co/read/2097757/indonesia-mandates-ispo-certification-for-downstream-palm-oil-by-2027 (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[46] Peterson Solutions, “Enhancing Palm Oil Governance: Comparing Presidential Regulation No. 44/2020 and No. 16/2025,” Peterson Solutions. Accessed: Apr. 03, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://www.petersonindonesia.com/post/indonesia-s-2026-regulatory-update-on-business-and-human-rights
[47] I. Jo Anastasya and T. Angelica, “Striking a Balance: Navigating Economic Growth and Sustainability in Indonesia’s Palm Oil Sector,” Law Review, Oct. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.19166/lr.v24i1.9673.
[48] P. Gandhi and Takanashi Fumie, “Differences in Organization Structure and the Supply Chain of Private with State-Owned Palm Oil Mills in North Sumatra, Indonesia,” E3S web of conferences, vol. 454, pp. 02025–02025, Jan. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202345402025.
[49] admin, “Govt Asked To Fix Palm Mills’ governance For Sustainability - Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI),” Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI), Sep. 22, 2025. https://gapki.id/en/news/2025/09/22/govt-asked-to-fix-palm-mills-governance-for-sustainability/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[50] Haisawit and Haisawit, “Kementan Mendorong Kepala Daerah Awasi Pendirian Pabrik Sawit Melalui Surat Edaran,” Haisawit.co.id, 2024. https://haisawit.co.id/news/detail/kementan-mendorong-kepala-daerah-awasi-pendirian-pabrik-sawit-melalui-surat-edaran (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[51] A. J. Astari, J. C. Lovett, and M. Wasesa, “Sustainable pathways in Indonesia’s palm oil industry through historical institutionalism,” World Development Sustainability, vol. 6, p. 100200, Jun. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100200.
[52] L. Judijanto, “FROM VOLUNTARY TO MANDATORY: A REVIEW OF PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING PALM OIL SUSTAINABILITY CERTIFICATIONS IN INDONESIA,” ERR01, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 232–254, Jul. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.56238/err01v10n2-013.
[53] D. Y. Muldiana, A. H. Dharmawan, D. R. Nurrochmat, and R. Boer, “Decoupling and Resistance: Local Responses to Global Environmental Norms in Indonesia’s Palm Oil Sector,” Sustainability, vol. 18, no. 8, p. 3999, Apr. 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su18083999.
[54] K. Sukiyono et al., “Smallholder palm oil and sustainable development goals (SDGs) achievement: An empirical analysis,” Sustainable Futures, vol. 8, p. 100233, Jun. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2024.100233.
[55] R. Islami, “Analisis Kualitas Tandan Buah Segar (TBS) Kelapa Sawit Yang diterima dengan Metode Seven Tools Dan FMEA (Studi Kasus Pada PT Sawit Inti Raya),” Uii.ac.id, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/dspace.uii.ac.id/123456789/55732.
[56] Defris Hatmaja, Seno Andri, Meyzi Heriyanto, and Mayarni, “Pricing of Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) From Oil Palm in Riau Province, Indonesia: Developing A Collaborative Governance Model for Sustainable Agriculture,” International Journal of Religion, vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 1168–1178, Jun. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.61707/p51yna78.
[57] D. P. S. Badwal and S. Hooda, “AGRICULTURE 2.0: INNOVATIONS IN THE MODERN FARMING,” Sep. 09, 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/396462726_AGRICULTURE_20_INNOVATIONS_IN_THE_MODERN_FARMING
[58] Dienda Hendrawan, D. Chrisendo, and O. Musshoff, “Strengthening oil palm smallholder farmers’ resilience to future industrial challenges,” Scientific reports, vol. 14, no. 1, May 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62426-z.
[59] T. M. Li, “Securing oil palm smallholder livelihoods without more deforestation in Indonesia,” Nature Sustainability, pp. 1–7, Feb. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01279-w.
[60] admin, “Partnerships Become Growth Engine Of RI’s Palm Smallholders - Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI),” Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI), Jan. 15, 2025. https://gapki.id/en/news/2025/01/15/partnerships-become-growth-engine-of-ris-palm-smallholders/
[61] Administrator, “Time for the Government: Claim the Mills without Plantations,” Infosawit.com, Mar. 29, 2024. https://www.en.infosawit.com/news/13625/time-for-the-government--claim-the-mills-without-plantations (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[62] Administrator, “Non-Conventional Palm Oil Mills Pose New Sustainability Challenge for Indonesia’s Palm Oil Industry,” Infosawit.com, May 12, 2026. https://en.infosawit.com/news/17722/non-conventional-palm-oil-mills-pose-new-sustainability-challenge-for-indonesia---s-palm-oil-industry (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[63] Lifianthi Lifianthi, Thirtawati Thirtawati, and Rosana Elly, “Partnership implementation and satisfaction level of plasma farmers in oil palm plantation management in Musi Banyuasin Regency, South Sumatra,” World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 154–164, Jul. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.19.1.0963.
[64] L. Dong, P. (Puping) Jiang, and F. Xu, “Blockchain Adoption for Traceability in Food Supply Chain Networks,” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3484664.
[65] Bambang Prasetya et al., “The Role of Traceability of Standardized Palm Oil Seed for Strengthening Smallholder Plantation in Indonesia,” Journal of Ecohumanism, vol. 4, no. 1, Feb. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v4i1.6385.
[66] R. Hilend, J. E. Bell, S. E. Griffis, and J. R. Macdonald, “Illicit activity and scarce natural resources in the supply chain: A literature review, framework, and research agenda,” Journal of Business Logistics, Feb. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jbl.12331.
[67] Kumaragita, “Sustainability at the Core: How Traceability to Plantation (TTP) Can Transform Indonesia’s Palm Oil Industry?,” Koltiva, Mar. 27, 2025. https://www.koltiva.com/post/enhancing-sustainable-palm-oil-traceability-for-a-transparent-supply-chain
[68] Muhamad Mustopa Romdhon, N. Windirah, and Agung Trisusilo, “Palm Oil Fresh Fruit Bunch Supply Chain in Bengkulu Province: A Study on Trust Levels Among Suppliers,” Agrisocionomics Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 555–566, Jan. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.14710/agrisocionomics.v9i2.25000.
[69] “View of The Effect of Fresh Fruit Bunch Prices and Transportation Costs on The Income of Oil Palm Farmers in Kampung Rakyat District,” Inarah.co.id, 2026. https://ijstm.inarah.co.id/index.php/ijstm/article/view/1384/1256 (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[70] D. Siahaan, Ilmi Fadhilah Rizki, Frisda Rimbun Panjaitan, M. E. Mulyono, Brahmani Dewa Bajra, and Mulki Salendra Kusumah, “Factors affecting crude palm oil quality across the supply chain and implications for downstream industries in North Sumatra and Riau,” Menara Perkebunan, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 93–105, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.22302/iribb.jur.mp.v93i2.646.
[71] M. S. Pamungkas, “Supply Chain Disruptions and Business Challenges during Palm Oil Crisis in Indonesia,” SukukInternatioanl J. Banking, Financ. Manag. Bus., vol. 3, no. 1, 2024, [Online]. Available: https://sukukjournal.org.uk/index.php/sukuk/article/view/41
[72] R. E. de Vos, A. Suwarno, M. Slingerland, P. J. van der Meer, and J. M. Lucey, “Pre-certification conditions of independent oil palm smallholders in Indonesia. Assessing prospects for RSPO certification,” Land Use Policy, vol. 130, p. 106660, Jul. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106660.
[73] W. E. Wardhana and S. W. Handayani, “Legal Certainty of Oil Palm Plantation Cultivation Rights within Forest Areas Following Government Regulation Number 45 of 2025,” Al Risal. J. Ilmu Syariah dan Huk., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1354–1379, 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.24252/al-risalah.vi.67203.
[74] P. C. J. Situmorang, D. Sukarja, and R. Robert, “Legal Study On Foreign Ownership In The Oil Palm Plantation Sector From The Perspective Of Indonesia’s Economic Sovereignty,” Ultimate Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 158–166, Nov. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.32734/uljls.v2i2.23450.
[75] N. Abdul Majid, Z. Ramli, S. Md Sum, and A. H. Awang, “Sustainable Palm Oil Certification Scheme Frameworks and Impacts: A Systematic Literature Review,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 3263, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063263.
[76] M. Khairani, L. Shen, B. Wicke, M. Mutchek, S. Seixas Lopes, and M. Junginger, “Stakeholders’ perspectives on credible certification schemes and labels for a sustainable EU bioeconomy,” Sustainability Science, Apr. 2026, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-026-01841-9.
[77] admin, “FEATURE: Waiting For Legal Certainty Of Indonesian Palm Oil Industry - Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI),” Gabungan Pengusaha Kelapa Sawit Indonesia (GAPKI), Oct. 14, 2023. https://gapki.id/en/news/2023/10/14/feature-waiting-for-legal-certainty-of-indonesian-palm-oil-industry/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[78] “Omnibus Law for Plantation Sector - What’s It All About? - Manpower - Legal Centric,” Legalcentric.com, 2020. https://legalcentric.com/content/view/156982 (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[79] N. A. Komarudin, H. Hariyadi, and T. June, “Gap analysis of environmental licensing on oil palm plantations in eastern part of South Sumatra Province,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 1098, no. 4, p. 042111, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1098/4/042111.
[80] Administrator, “Indonesia Warns Palm Oil Mills over Fresh Fruit Bunch Purchases below Benchmark Prices,” Infosawit.com, Jun. 2026. https://www.en.infosawit.com/news/17829/indonesia-warns-palm-oil-mills-over-fresh-fruit-bunch-purchases-below-benchmark-prices (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[81] Sari, “4 Field-Proven Actions to Achieve Traceability to Plantation (TTP) in Palm Oil Supply Chains and Why It Matter,” Koltiva, Apr. 09, 2026. https://www.koltiva.com/post/4-field-proven-actions-to-achieve-traceability-to-plantation-ttp-in-palm-oil-supply-chains-and-why (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[82] “The Terpercaya Initiative: Jurisdictional Palm Oil Traceability in Indonesia - JA Hub,” JA Hub, Dec. 12, 2022. https://jaresourcehub.org/publications/the-terpercaya-initiative-jurisdictional-palm-oil-traceability-in-indonesia/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[83] D. Prasetyo, “Indonesia’s 40% Palm Oil Smallholders Face Traceability and Certification Gaps as EUDR Compliance Looms,” Koltiva, Dec. 09, 2025. https://www.koltiva.com/post/indonesia-40-palm-oil-smallholders-face-traceability-and-certification-gaps-as-eudr-compliance
[84] A. R. Hakim, Rio Tutrianto, and Muh, “Supervision of the Riau Province Plantation Service in Determining the Purchase Price of Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) in Siak Regency,” Pasundan Social Science Development, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 84–92, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.56457/pascidev.v6i1.267.
[85] Ditjenbun, “Perkuat Regulasi : Langkah Pemerintah Pastikan Harga TBS Tidak Merugikan Pekebun,” Direktorat Jenderal Perkebunan - Kementerian Pertanian. Accessed: Jun. 01, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://ditjenbun.pertanian.go.id/perkuat-regulasi-langkah-pemerintah-pastikan-harga-tbs-tidak-merugikan-pekebun/
[86] I. Jelsma, None Turinah, F. Gay, J. Ollivier, and B. Rapidel, “Collective action, replanting and resilience; Key lessons from 40 years of smallholder oil palm cultivation in the Ophir plantation, Indonesia,” Agricultural Systems, vol. 213, pp. 103801–103801, Nov. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2023.103801.
[87] N. Zachlod, M. Hudecheck, C. Sirén, and G. George, “Sustainable palm oil certification inadvertently affects production efficiency in Malaysia,” Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 6, no. 1, Mar. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02150-2.
[88] S. Peteru, H. Komarudin, and M. A. Brady, “Challenges and key interventions to transition to sustainability in Indonesia and Malaysia,” CIFOR-ICRAF, Dec. 31, 2022. https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/8800/
[89] M. Desilets, “Indonesia’s replanting subsidy is insufficient to empower smallholder farmers to replant aging oil palms - Sustainable Palm Oil Choice,” Sustainable Palm Oil Choice, May 05, 2026. https://www.sustainablepalmoilchoice.eu/indonesias-replanting-subsidy-is-insufficient-to-empower-smallholder-farmers-to-replant-aging-oil-palms/ (accessed Jun. 04, 2026).
[90] R. Wardhani and Y. Rahadian, “Sustainability strategy of Indonesian and Malaysian palm oil industry: a qualitative analysis,” Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal, vol. ahead-of-print, no. ahead-of-print, May 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/sampj-07-2020-0259.
[91] L. M. Ayompe, R. N. Nkongho, A. N. Acobta, C. Masso, and B. N. Egoh, “Transforming palm oil production: sustainable techniques and waste management strategies for Cameroon’s smallholder farmers,” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, vol. 9, Jul. 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1606323.
